EXPLORATORY DATA VISUALIZATION (EDA) & VISUALIZATION

WEEK 3 IN-CLASS LAB

Author

Tess Vu

Published

September 22, 2025

Setup and Data Loading

Code 
# Load required packages
library(tidyverse)
library(tidycensus)
library(scales)
library(RColorBrewer)
# Set your Census API key if you haven't already
census_api_key(Sys.getenv("3aaee31789e10b674a531e9f236c35d5394b19ed"))

# We'll use Pennsylvania data for consistency with previous weeks
state_choice <- "PA"

Exercise 0: Finding Census Variable Codes

The Challenge: You know you want data on total population, median income, and median age, but you don’t know the specific Census variable codes. How do you find them?

0.1 Load the Variable Dictionary

Code 
# Load all available variables for ACS 5-year 2022
acs_vars_2022 <- load_variables(2022, "acs5", cache = TRUE)

# Look at the structure
glimpse(acs_vars_2022)
Rows: 28,152
Columns: 4
$ name      <chr> "B01001A_001", "B01001A_002", "B01001A_003", "B01001A_004", …
$ label     <chr> "Estimate!!Total:", "Estimate!!Total:!!Male:", "Estimate!!To…
$ concept   <chr> "Sex by Age (White Alone)", "Sex by Age (White Alone)", "Sex…
$ geography <chr> "tract", "tract", "tract", "tract", "tract", "tract", "tract…
Code 
head(acs_vars_2022)
# A tibble: 6 × 4
  name        label                                   concept          geography
  <chr>       <chr>                                   <chr>            <chr>    
1 B01001A_001 Estimate!!Total:                        Sex by Age (Whi… tract    
2 B01001A_002 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:                 Sex by Age (Whi… tract    
3 B01001A_003 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!Under 5 years  Sex by Age (Whi… tract    
4 B01001A_004 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!5 to 9 years   Sex by Age (Whi… tract    
5 B01001A_005 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!10 to 14 years Sex by Age (Whi… tract    
6 B01001A_006 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!15 to 17 years Sex by Age (Whi… tract

What you see:

  • name: The variable code (e.g., “B01003_001”)
  • label: Human-readable description
  • concept: The broader table this variable belongs to

0.2 Search for Population Variables

Your Task: Find the variable code for total population.

Code 
# Search for population-related variables
population_vars <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "Total.*population"))

# Look at the results
head(population_vars, 10)
# A tibble: 10 × 4
   name       label                                            concept geography
   <chr>      <chr>                                            <chr>   <chr>    
 1 B16008_002 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:"           Citize… tract    
 2 B16008_003 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 3 B16008_004 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 4 B16008_005 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 5 B16008_006 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 6 B16008_007 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 7 B16008_008 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 8 B16008_009 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
 9 B16008_010 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!5 to 17 … Citize… tract    
10 B16008_011 "Estimate!!Total:!!Native population:!!18 years… Citize… tract
Code 
# Or search in the concept field
pop_concept <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(concept, "Total Population"))

head(pop_concept)
# A tibble: 6 × 4
  name        label                             concept                geography
  <chr>       <chr>                             <chr>                  <chr>    
1 B01003_001  Estimate!!Total                   Total Population       block gr…
2 B25008A_001 Estimate!!Total:                  Total Population in O… block gr…
3 B25008A_002 Estimate!!Total:!!Owner occupied  Total Population in O… block gr…
4 B25008A_003 Estimate!!Total:!!Renter occupied Total Population in O… block gr…
5 B25008B_001 Estimate!!Total:                  Total Population in O… block gr…
6 B25008B_002 Estimate!!Total:!!Owner occupied  Total Population in O… block gr…

Tip: Look for “Total” followed by “population” - usually B01003_001

0.3 Search for Income Variables

Your Task: Find median household income variables.

Code 
# Search for median income
income_vars <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "[Mm]edian.*income"))

# Look specifically for household income
household_income <- income_vars %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "household"))

print("Household income variables:")
[1] "Household income variables:"
Code 
head(household_income)
# A tibble: 6 × 4
  name        label                                            concept geography
  <chr>       <chr>                                            <chr>   <chr>    
1 B10010_002  Estimate!!Median family income in the past 12 m… Median… tract    
2 B10010_003  Estimate!!Median family income in the past 12 m… Median… tract    
3 B19013A_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
4 B19013B_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
5 B19013C_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
6 B19013D_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract
Code 
# Alternative: search by concept
income_concept <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(concept, "Median Household Income"))

head(income_concept)
# A tibble: 6 × 4
  name        label                                            concept geography
  <chr>       <chr>                                            <chr>   <chr>    
1 B19013A_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
2 B19013B_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
3 B19013C_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
4 B19013D_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract    
5 B19013E_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… county   
6 B19013F_001 Estimate!!Median household income in the past 1… Median… tract

Pattern Recognition: Median household income is typically B19013_001

0.4 Search for Age Variables

Your Task: Find median age variables.

Code 
# Search for median income
age_vars <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "[Mm]edian.*age"))

head(age_vars, 10)
# A tibble: 10 × 4
   name        label                           concept                 geography
   <chr>       <chr>                           <chr>                   <chr>    
 1 B01002A_001 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total: Median Age by Sex (Whi… block gr…
 2 B01002A_002 Estimate!!Median age --!!Male   Median Age by Sex (Whi… block gr…
 3 B01002A_003 Estimate!!Median age --!!Female Median Age by Sex (Whi… block gr…
 4 B01002B_001 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total: Median Age by Sex (Bla… block gr…
 5 B01002B_002 Estimate!!Median age --!!Male   Median Age by Sex (Bla… block gr…
 6 B01002B_003 Estimate!!Median age --!!Female Median Age by Sex (Bla… block gr…
 7 B01002C_001 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total: Median Age by Sex (Ame… block gr…
 8 B01002C_002 Estimate!!Median age --!!Male   Median Age by Sex (Ame… block gr…
 9 B01002C_003 Estimate!!Median age --!!Female Median Age by Sex (Ame… block gr…
10 B01002D_001 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total: Median Age by Sex (Asi… block gr…
Code 
# Alternative: search by concept
age_concept <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(concept, "Age"))

head(age_concept, 10)
# A tibble: 10 × 4
   name        label                                    concept        geography
   <chr>       <chr>                                    <chr>          <chr>    
 1 B01001A_001 Estimate!!Total:                         Sex by Age (W… tract    
 2 B01001A_002 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:                  Sex by Age (W… tract    
 3 B01001A_003 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!Under 5 years   Sex by Age (W… tract    
 4 B01001A_004 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!5 to 9 years    Sex by Age (W… tract    
 5 B01001A_005 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!10 to 14 years  Sex by Age (W… tract    
 6 B01001A_006 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!15 to 17 years  Sex by Age (W… tract    
 7 B01001A_007 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!18 and 19 years Sex by Age (W… tract    
 8 B01001A_008 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!20 to 24 years  Sex by Age (W… tract    
 9 B01001A_009 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!25 to 29 years  Sex by Age (W… tract    
10 B01001A_010 Estimate!!Total:!!Male:!!30 to 34 years  Sex by Age (W… tract

0.5 Advanced Search Techniques

Your Task: Learn more sophisticated search methods.

Code 
# Search for multiple terms at once
housing_vars <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "[Mm]edian.*(rent|value)"))

print("Housing cost variables:")
[1] "Housing cost variables:"
Code 
head(housing_vars, 10)
# A tibble: 10 × 4
   name         label                                          concept geography
   <chr>        <chr>                                          <chr>   <chr>    
 1 B07002PR_004 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total:!!Moved from d… Median… <NA>     
 2 B07002_004   Estimate!!Median age --!!Total:!!Moved from d… Median… tract    
 3 B07002_005   Estimate!!Median age --!!Total:!!Moved from d… Median… tract    
 4 B07011PR_004 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months… Median… <NA>     
 5 B07011_004   Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months… Median… tract    
 6 B07011_005   Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months… Median… tract    
 7 B07402PR_004 Estimate!!Median age --!!Total living in area… Median… <NA>     
 8 B07402_004   Estimate!!Median age --!!Total living in area… Median… county   
 9 B07402_005   Estimate!!Median age --!!Total living in area… Median… county   
10 B07411PR_004 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months… Median… <NA>
Code 
# Search excluding certain terms
income_not_family <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, "[Mm]edian.*income") & 
         !str_detect(label, "family"))

print("Income variables (not family income):")
[1] "Income variables (not family income):"
Code 
head(income_not_family)
# A tibble: 6 × 4
  name         label                                           concept geography
  <chr>        <chr>                                           <chr>   <chr>    
1 B06011PR_001 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… <NA>     
2 B06011PR_002 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… <NA>     
3 B06011PR_003 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… <NA>     
4 B06011PR_004 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… <NA>     
5 B06011PR_005 Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… <NA>     
6 B06011_001   Estimate!!Median income in the past 12 months … Median… tract
Code 
# Case-insensitive search using regex
education_vars <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(label, regex("bachelor", ignore_case = TRUE)))

print("Education variables:")
[1] "Education variables:"
Code 
head(education_vars, 5)
# A tibble: 5 × 4
  name         label                                           concept geography
  <chr>        <chr>                                           <chr>   <chr>    
1 B06009PR_005 Estimate!!Total:!!Bachelor's degree             Place … <NA>     
2 B06009PR_011 Estimate!!Total:!!Born in Puerto Rico:!!Bachel… Place … <NA>     
3 B06009PR_017 Estimate!!Total:!!Born in the United States:!!… Place … <NA>     
4 B06009PR_023 Estimate!!Total:!!Native; born elsewhere:!!Bac… Place … <NA>     
5 B06009PR_029 Estimate!!Total:!!Foreign born:!!Bachelor's de… Place … <NA>

0.6 Interactive Exploration

Your Task: Use RStudio’s viewer for easier searching.

Code 
# Open the full variable list in RStudio viewer
# This opens a searchable data table
#View(acs_vars_2022)

# Pro tip: You can also search specific table groups
# B01 = Age and Sex
# B19 = Income  
# B25 = Housing
table_b19 <- acs_vars_2022 %>%
  filter(str_detect(name, "^B19"))  # ^ means "starts with"

print("All B19 (Income) table variables:")
[1] "All B19 (Income) table variables:"
Code 
head(table_b19, 10)
# A tibble: 10 × 4
   name        label                                concept            geography
   <chr>       <chr>                                <chr>              <chr>    
 1 B19001A_001 Estimate!!Total:                     Household Income … tract    
 2 B19001A_002 Estimate!!Total:!!Less than $10,000  Household Income … tract    
 3 B19001A_003 Estimate!!Total:!!$10,000 to $14,999 Household Income … tract    
 4 B19001A_004 Estimate!!Total:!!$15,000 to $19,999 Household Income … tract    
 5 B19001A_005 Estimate!!Total:!!$20,000 to $24,999 Household Income … tract    
 6 B19001A_006 Estimate!!Total:!!$25,000 to $29,999 Household Income … tract    
 7 B19001A_007 Estimate!!Total:!!$30,000 to $34,999 Household Income … tract    
 8 B19001A_008 Estimate!!Total:!!$35,000 to $39,999 Household Income … tract    
 9 B19001A_009 Estimate!!Total:!!$40,000 to $44,999 Household Income … tract    
10 B19001A_010 Estimate!!Total:!!$45,000 to $49,999 Household Income … tract

0.7 Verify Your Variable Choices

Your Task: Test your variables by getting a small sample of data.

Code 
# Test the variables you found
test_vars <- c(
  total_pop = "B01003_001",      # Total population
  median_income = "B19013_001",  # Median household income
  median_age = "B01002_001"      # Median age
)

# Get data for just one state to test
test_data <- get_acs(
  geography = "state",
  variables = test_vars,
  state = "PA",
  year = 2022
)

# Check that you got what you expected
test_data
# A tibble: 3 × 5
  GEOID NAME         variable        estimate   moe
  <chr> <chr>        <chr>              <dbl> <dbl>
1 42    Pennsylvania median_age          40.8   0.1
2 42    Pennsylvania total_pop     12989208    NA  
3 42    Pennsylvania median_income    73170   347

0.8 Common Variable Patterns

Reference guide for future use:

Code 
# Common patterns to remember:
common_variables <- tribble(
  ~concept, ~typical_code, ~description,
  "Total Population", "B01003_001", "Total population",
  "Median Age", "B01002_001", "Median age of population", 
  "Median HH Income", "B19013_001", "Median household income",
  "White Population", "B03002_003", "White alone population",
  "Black Population", "B03002_004", "Black/African American alone",
  "Hispanic Population", "B03002_012", "Hispanic or Latino population",
  "Bachelor's Degree", "B15003_022", "Bachelor's degree or higher",
  "Median Rent", "B25058_001", "Median contract rent",
  "Median Home Value", "B25077_001", "Median value owner-occupied"
)

print("Common Census Variables:")
[1] "Common Census Variables:"
Code 
common_variables
# A tibble: 9 × 3
  concept             typical_code description                  
  <chr>               <chr>        <chr>                        
1 Total Population    B01003_001   Total population             
2 Median Age          B01002_001   Median age of population     
3 Median HH Income    B19013_001   Median household income      
4 White Population    B03002_003   White alone population       
5 Black Population    B03002_004   Black/African American alone 
6 Hispanic Population B03002_012   Hispanic or Latino population
7 Bachelor's Degree   B15003_022   Bachelor's degree or higher  
8 Median Rent         B25058_001   Median contract rent         
9 Median Home Value   B25077_001   Median value owner-occupied

Key Tips for Variable Hunting:

  1. Start with concepts - search for the topic you want (income, age, housing)
  2. Look for “Median” vs “Mean” - median is usually more policy-relevant
  3. Check the universe - some variables are for “households,” others for “population”
  4. Test with small data before running large queries
  5. Bookmark useful variables for future projects (type them in your weekly notes!)

Exercise 1: Single Variable EDA

1.1 Load and Inspect Data

Code 
# Get county-level data for your state
county_data <- get_acs(
  geography = "county",
  variables = c(
    total_pop = "B01003_001",       # Total population
    median_income = "B19013_001",   # Median household income
    median_age = "B01002_001"       # Median age
  ),
  state = state_choice,
  year = 2022,
  output = "wide"
)

# Clean county names
county_data <- county_data %>%
  mutate(county_name = str_remove(NAME, paste(", ", state_choice)))

# Basic inspection
glimpse(county_data)
Rows: 67
Columns: 9
$ GEOID          <chr> "42001", "42003", "42005", "42007", "42009", "42011", "…
$ NAME           <chr> "Adams County, Pennsylvania", "Allegheny County, Pennsy…
$ total_popE     <dbl> 104604, 1245310, 65538, 167629, 47613, 428483, 122640, …
$ total_popM     <dbl> NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA, NA,…
$ median_incomeE <dbl> 78975, 72537, 61011, 67194, 58337, 74617, 59386, 60650,…
$ median_incomeM <dbl> 3334, 869, 2202, 1531, 2606, 1191, 2058, 2167, 1516, 21…
$ median_ageE    <dbl> 43.8, 40.6, 47.0, 44.9, 47.3, 39.9, 42.9, 43.9, 44.0, 4…
$ median_ageM    <dbl> 0.2, 0.1, 0.2, 0.1, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, …
$ county_name    <chr> "Adams County, Pennsylvania", "Allegheny County, Pennsy…

1.2 Explore Income Distribution

Your Task: Create a histogram of median household income and describe what you see.

Code 
# Create histogram of median income
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = median_incomeE) +
  geom_histogram(bins = 15, fill = "steelblue", alpha = 0.7) +
  labs(
    title = "Distribution of Median Household Income",
    x = "Median Household Income ($)",
    y = "Number of Counties"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = dollar)

1.3 Box Plot for Outlier Detection

Your Task: Create a boxplot to identify specific outlier counties.

Code 
# Box plot to see outliers clearly
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_boxplot(fill = "lightblue", width = 0.5) +
  labs(
    title = "Median Income Distribution with Outliers",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Code 
# Identify the outlier counties
income_outliers <- county_data %>%
  mutate(
    Q1 = quantile(median_incomeE, 0.25, na.rm = TRUE),
    Q3 = quantile(median_incomeE, 0.75, na.rm = TRUE),
    IQR = Q3 - Q1,
    outlier = median_incomeE < (Q1 - 1.5 * IQR) | median_incomeE > (Q3 + 1.5 * IQR)
  ) %>%
  filter(outlier) %>%
  select(county_name, median_incomeE)

print("Outlier counties:")
[1] "Outlier counties:"
Code 
income_outliers
# A tibble: 3 × 2
  county_name                     median_incomeE
  <chr>                                    <dbl>
1 Bucks County, Pennsylvania              107826
2 Chester County, Pennsylvania            118574
3 Montgomery County, Pennsylvania         107441

1.4 Challenge Exercise: Population Distribution

Your Task: Create your own visualization of population distribution and identify outliers.

Requirements:

  • Create a histogram of total population (total_popE)
  • Use a different color than the income example (try “darkgreen” or “purple”)
  • Add appropriate labels and title
  • Create a boxplot to identify population outliers
  • Find and list the 3 most populous and 3 least populous counties
Code 
# Create histogram of median income
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = total_popE) +
  geom_histogram(bins = 15, fill = "darkgreen", alpha = 0.7) +
  labs(
    title = "Distribution of Median Population",
    x = "Median Population",
    y = "Number of Counties"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma)

Code 
# Box plot to see outliers clearly
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(y = total_popE) +
  geom_boxplot(fill = "lightgreen", width = 0.5) +
  labs(
    title = "Median Population Distribution with Outliers",
    y = "Median Population"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = comma)

Code 
# Identify the outlier counties
income_outliers <- county_data %>%
  mutate(
    Q1 = quantile(total_popE, 0.25, na.rm = TRUE),
    Q3 = quantile(total_popE, 0.75, na.rm = TRUE),
    IQR = Q3 - Q1,
    outlier = total_popE < (Q1 - 1.5 * IQR) | total_popE > (Q3 + 1.5 * IQR)
  ) %>%
  filter(outlier) %>%
  select(county_name, total_popE)

print("Outlier counties:")
[1] "Outlier counties:"
Code 
income_outliers
# A tibble: 7 × 2
  county_name                       total_popE
  <chr>                                  <dbl>
1 Allegheny County, Pennsylvania       1245310
2 Bucks County, Pennsylvania            645163
3 Chester County, Pennsylvania          536474
4 Delaware County, Pennsylvania         575312
5 Lancaster County, Pennsylvania        553202
6 Montgomery County, Pennsylvania       856399
7 Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania    1593208

Exercise 2: Two Variable Relationships

2.1 Population vs Income Scatter Plot

Your Task: Explore the relationship between population size and median income.

Code 
# Basic scatter plot
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point() +
  labs(
    title = "Population vs Median Income",
    x = "Total Population",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

2.2 Add Trend Line and Labels

Your Task: Improve the plot by adding a trend line and labeling interesting points.

Code 
# Enhanced scatter plot with trend line
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = TRUE, color = "red") +
  labs(
    title = "Population vs Median Income in Pennsylvania Counties",
    subtitle = "2018-2022 ACS 5-Year Estimates",
    x = "Total Population",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)",
    caption = "Source: U.S. Census Bureau"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Code 
# Calculate correlation
correlation <- cor(county_data$total_popE, county_data$median_incomeE, use = "complete.obs")
print(paste("Correlation coefficient:", round(correlation, 3)))
[1] "Correlation coefficient: 0.457"

2.3 Deal with Skewed Data

Your Task: The population data is highly skewed. Try a log transformation.

Code 
# Log-transformed scatter plot
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = log(total_popE), y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = TRUE) +
  labs(
    title = "Log(Population) vs Median Income",
    x = "Log(Total Population)",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Question: Does the log transformation reveal a clearer relationship?

2.4 Challenge Exercise: Age vs Income Relationship

Your Task: Explore the relationship between median age and median income using different visualization techniques.

Requirements:

  • Create a scatter plot with median age on x-axis and median income on y-axis
  • Use red points (color = "red") with 50% transparency (alpha = 0.5)
  • Add a smooth trend line using method = "loess" instead of “lm”
  • Use the “dark” theme (theme_dark())
  • Format the y-axis with dollar signs
  • Add a title that mentions both variables
Code 
# Enhanced scatter plot with trend line
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = median_ageE, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(, color = "red", alpha = 0.5) +
  geom_smooth(method = "loess", se = TRUE, color = "darkgreen") +
  labs(
    title = "Median Age vs Median Income in Pennsylvania Counties",
    subtitle = "2018-2022 ACS 5-Year Estimates",
    x = "Median Age",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)",
    caption = "Source: U.S. Census Bureau"
  ) +
  theme_dark() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Code 
# Calculate correlation
correlation <- cor(county_data$median_ageE, county_data$median_incomeE, use = "complete.obs")
print(paste("Correlation coefficient:", round(correlation, 3)))
[1] "Correlation coefficient: -0.317"

Exercise 3: Data Quality Visualization

3.1 Visualize Margins of Error

Your Task: Create a visualization showing how data reliability varies across counties.

Code 
# Calculate MOE percentages
county_reliability <- county_data %>%
  mutate(
    income_moe_pct = (median_incomeM / median_incomeE) * 100,
    pop_category = case_when(
      total_popE < 50000 ~ "Small (<50K)",
      total_popE < 200000 ~ "Medium (50K-200K)",
      TRUE ~ "Large (200K+)"
    )
  )
Code 
# MOE by population size
ggplot(county_reliability) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = income_moe_pct) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_hline(yintercept = 10, color = "red", linetype = "dashed") +
  labs(
    title = "Data Reliability Decreases with Population Size",
    x = "Total Population",
    y = "Margin of Error (%)",
    caption = "Red line = 10% reliability threshold"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma)

3.2 Compare Reliability by County Size

Your Task: Use box plots to compare MOE across county size categories.

Code 
# Box plots by population category
ggplot(county_reliability) +
  aes(x = pop_category, y = income_moe_pct, fill = pop_category) +
  geom_boxplot() +
  labs(
    title = "Data Reliability by County Size Category",
    x = "Population Category",
    y = "Margin of Error (%)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(legend.position = "none")  # Remove legend since x-axis is clear

3.3 Challenge Exercise: Age Data Reliability

Your Task: Analyze the reliability of median age data across counties.

Requirements:

  • Calculate MOE percentage for median age (median_ageM / median_ageE * 100)
  • Create a scatter plot showing population vs age MOE percentage
  • Use purple points (color = "purple") with size = 2
  • Add a horizontal line at 5% MOE using geom_hline() with a blue dashed line
  • Use theme_classic()instead of theme_minimal()
  • Create a boxplot comparing age MOE across the three population categories
Code 
# Calculate MOE percentages
county_reliability <- county_data %>%
  mutate(
    age_moe_pct = (median_ageM / median_ageE) * 100,
    pop_category = case_when(
      total_popE < 50000 ~ "Small (<50K)",
      total_popE < 200000 ~ "Medium (50K-200K)",
      TRUE ~ "Large (200K+)"
    )
  )

# MOE by population size
ggplot(county_reliability) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = age_moe_pct) +
  geom_point(color = "purple", size = 2, alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_hline(yintercept = 5, color = "blue", linetype = "dashed") +
  labs(
    title = "Data Reliability Decreases with Median Age",
    x = "Median Age",
    y = "Margin of Error (%)",
    caption = "Blue Line = 5% Reliability Threshold"
  ) +
  theme_classic()

Code 
# Box plots by population category
ggplot(county_reliability) +
  aes(x = pop_category, y = age_moe_pct, fill = pop_category) +
  geom_boxplot() +
  labs(
    title = "Data Reliability by Age MOE",
    x = "Population Category",
    y = "Margin of Error (%)"
  ) +
  theme_classic() +
  theme(legend.position = "none")  # Remove legend since x-axis is clear

Exercise 4: Multiple Variables with Color and Faceting

4.1 Three-Variable Scatter Plot

Your Task: Add median age as a color dimension to the population-income relationship.

Code 
# Three-variable scatter plot
ggplot(county_data) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = median_incomeE, color = median_ageE) +
  geom_point(size = 2, alpha = 0.7) +
  scale_color_viridis_c(name = "Median\nAge") +
  labs(
    title = "Population, Income, and Age Patterns",
    x = "Total Population",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

4.2 Create Categories for Faceting

Your Task: Create age categories and use faceting to compare patterns.

Code 
# Create age categories and faceted plot
county_faceted <- county_data %>%
  mutate(
    age_category = case_when(
      median_ageE < 40 ~ "Young (< 40)",
      median_ageE < 45 ~ "Middle-aged (40-45)",
      TRUE ~ "Older (45+)"
    )
  )

ggplot(county_faceted) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = FALSE) +
  facet_wrap(~age_category) +
  labs(
    title = "Population-Income Relationship by Age Profile",
    x = "Total Population",
    y = "Median Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Question: Do the relationships between population and income differ by age profile?

Your Task: Create a visualization using income categories and multiple aesthetic mappings.

Requirements:

  • Create income categories: “Low” (<$50k), “Middle” ($50k-$80k), “High” (>$80k)
  • Make a scatter plot with population (x) vs median age (y) - Color points by income category
  • Size points by the margin of error for income (median_incomeM)
  • Use the “Set2” color palette: scale_color_brewer(palette = "Set2") **note: you’ll need to load the RColorBrewer package for this`
  • Facet by income category using facet_wrap()
  • Use theme_bw() theme

Exercise 5: Data Joins and Integration

5.1 Get Additional Census Data

Your Task: Load educational attainment data and join it with our existing data.

Code 
# Get educational attainment data
education_data <- get_acs(
  geography = "county",
  variables = c(
    total_25plus = "B15003_001",    # Total population 25 years and over
    bachelor_plus = "B15003_022"    # Bachelor's degree or higher
  ),
  state = state_choice,
  year = 2022,
  output = "wide"
) %>%
  mutate(
    pct_college = (bachelor_plusE / total_25plusE) * 100,
    county_name = str_remove(NAME, paste0(", ", state_choice))
  ) %>%
  select(GEOID, county_name, pct_college)

# Check the data
head(education_data)
# A tibble: 6 × 3
  GEOID county_name                    pct_college
  <chr> <chr>                                <dbl>
1 42001 Adams County, Pennsylvania           13.9 
2 42003 Allegheny County, Pennsylvania       25.4 
3 42005 Armstrong County, Pennsylvania       12.7 
4 42007 Beaver County, Pennsylvania          18.3 
5 42009 Bedford County, Pennsylvania          9.73
6 42011 Berks County, Pennsylvania           17.2

5.2 Join the Datasets

Your Task: Join the education data with our main county dataset.

Code 
# Perform the join
combined_data <- county_data %>%
  left_join(education_data, by = "GEOID")

# Check the join worked
cat("Original data rows:", nrow(county_data), "\n")
Original data rows: 67
Code 
cat("Combined data rows:", nrow(combined_data), "\n")
Combined data rows: 67
Code 
cat("Missing education data:", sum(is.na(combined_data$pct_college)), "\n")
Missing education data: 0
Code 
# View the combined data
head(combined_data)
# A tibble: 6 × 11
  GEOID NAME     total_popE total_popM median_incomeE median_incomeM median_ageE
  <chr> <chr>         <dbl>      <dbl>          <dbl>          <dbl>       <dbl>
1 42001 Adams C…     104604         NA          78975           3334        43.8
2 42003 Alleghe…    1245310         NA          72537            869        40.6
3 42005 Armstro…      65538         NA          61011           2202        47  
4 42007 Beaver …     167629         NA          67194           1531        44.9
5 42009 Bedford…      47613         NA          58337           2606        47.3
6 42011 Berks C…     428483         NA          74617           1191        39.9
# ℹ 4 more variables: median_ageM <dbl>, county_name.x <chr>,
#   county_name.y <chr>, pct_college <dbl>

5.3 Analyze the New Relationship

Your Task: Explore the relationship between education and income.

Code 
# Education vs Income scatter plot
ggplot(combined_data) +
  aes(x = pct_college, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = TRUE) +
  labs(
    title = "Education vs Income Across Counties",
    x = "Percent with Bachelor's Degree or Higher",
    y = "Median Household Income ($)"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar)

Code 
# Calculate correlation
edu_income_cor <- cor(combined_data$pct_college, combined_data$median_incomeE, use = "complete.obs")
print(paste("Education-Income Correlation:", round(edu_income_cor, 3)))
[1] "Education-Income Correlation: 0.811"

5.4 Get Housing Data and Triple Join

Your Task: Add housing cost data to create a three-way analysis.

Code 
# Get housing cost data
housing_data <- get_acs(
  geography = "county",
  variables = c(
    median_rent = "B25058_001",     # Median contract rent
    median_home_value = "B25077_001" # Median value of owner-occupied units
  ),
  state = state_choice,
  year = 2022,
  output = "wide"
) %>%
  select(GEOID, median_rent = median_rentE, median_home_value = median_home_valueE)

# Join all three datasets
full_data <- combined_data %>%
  left_join(housing_data, by = "GEOID")

# Create a housing affordability measure
full_data <- full_data %>%
  mutate(
    rent_to_income = (median_rent * 12) / median_incomeE * 100,
    income_category = case_when(
      median_incomeE < 50000 ~ "Low Income",
      median_incomeE < 80000 ~ "Middle Income",
      TRUE ~ "High Income"
    )
  )

head(full_data)
# A tibble: 6 × 15
  GEOID NAME     total_popE total_popM median_incomeE median_incomeM median_ageE
  <chr> <chr>         <dbl>      <dbl>          <dbl>          <dbl>       <dbl>
1 42001 Adams C…     104604         NA          78975           3334        43.8
2 42003 Alleghe…    1245310         NA          72537            869        40.6
3 42005 Armstro…      65538         NA          61011           2202        47  
4 42007 Beaver …     167629         NA          67194           1531        44.9
5 42009 Bedford…      47613         NA          58337           2606        47.3
6 42011 Berks C…     428483         NA          74617           1191        39.9
# ℹ 8 more variables: median_ageM <dbl>, county_name.x <chr>,
#   county_name.y <chr>, pct_college <dbl>, median_rent <dbl>,
#   median_home_value <dbl>, rent_to_income <dbl>, income_category <chr>

5.5 Advanced Multi-Variable Analysis

Your Task: Create a comprehensive visualization showing multiple relationships.

Code 
# Complex multi-variable plot
ggplot(full_data) +
  aes(x = pct_college, y = rent_to_income, 
      color = income_category, size = total_popE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  labs(
    title = "Education, Housing Affordability, and Income Patterns",
    subtitle = "Larger points = larger population",
    x = "Percent with Bachelor's Degree or Higher",
    y = "Annual Rent as % of Median Income",
    color = "Income Category",
    size = "Population"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  guides(size = guide_legend(override.aes = list(alpha = 1)))

Exercise 6: Publication-Ready Visualization

6.1 Create a Policy-Focused Visualization

Your Task: Combine multiple visualizations to tell a more complete story about county characteristics.

Code 
# Create a multi-panel figure
library(patchwork)  # For combining plots

# Plot 1: Income distribution
p1 <- ggplot(full_data) +
  aes(x = median_incomeE) +
  geom_histogram(bins = 15, fill = "steelblue", alpha = 0.7) +
  labs(title = "A) Income Distribution", 
       x = "Median Income ($)", y = "Counties") +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = dollar) +
  theme_minimal()

p1

Code 
# Plot 2: Education vs Income
p2 <- ggplot(full_data) +
  aes(x = pct_college, y = median_incomeE) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_smooth(method = "lm", se = FALSE) +
  labs(title = "B) Education vs Income",
       x = "% College Educated", y = "Median Income ($)") +
  scale_y_continuous(labels = dollar) +
  theme_minimal()

p2

Code 
# Plot 3: Housing affordability by income category
p3 <- ggplot(full_data) +
  aes(x = income_category, y = rent_to_income, fill = income_category) +
  geom_boxplot() +
  labs(title = "C) Housing Affordability by Income",
       x = "Income Category", y = "Rent as % of Income") +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(legend.position = "none")

p3

Code 
# Plot 4: Data reliability by population
income_moe_pct = (county_data$median_incomeM / county_data$median_incomeE) * 100

county_reliability
# A tibble: 67 × 11
   GEOID NAME    total_popE total_popM median_incomeE median_incomeM median_ageE
   <chr> <chr>        <dbl>      <dbl>          <dbl>          <dbl>       <dbl>
 1 42001 Adams …     104604         NA          78975           3334        43.8
 2 42003 Allegh…    1245310         NA          72537            869        40.6
 3 42005 Armstr…      65538         NA          61011           2202        47  
 4 42007 Beaver…     167629         NA          67194           1531        44.9
 5 42009 Bedfor…      47613         NA          58337           2606        47.3
 6 42011 Berks …     428483         NA          74617           1191        39.9
 7 42013 Blair …     122640         NA          59386           2058        42.9
 8 42015 Bradfo…      60159         NA          60650           2167        43.9
 9 42017 Bucks …     645163         NA         107826           1516        44  
10 42019 Butler…     194562         NA          82932           2164        43.4
# ℹ 57 more rows
# ℹ 4 more variables: median_ageM <dbl>, county_name <chr>, age_moe_pct <dbl>,
#   pop_category <chr>
Code 
p4 <- ggplot(county_reliability) +
  aes(x = total_popE, y = income_moe_pct) +
  geom_point(alpha = 0.7) +
  geom_hline(yintercept = 10, color = "red", linetype = "dashed") +
  labs(title = "D) Data Reliability",
       x = "Population", y = "MOE (%)") +
  scale_x_continuous(labels = comma) +
  theme_minimal()

p4

Code 
# Combine all plots
combined_plot <- (p1 | p2) / (p3 | p4)

combined_plot + plot_annotation(
  title = "Pennsylvania County Analysis: Income, Education, and Housing Patterns",
  caption = "Source: American Community Survey 2018-2022"
)

Exercise 7: Ethical Data Communication - Implementing Research Recommendations

Background: Research by Jurjevich et al. (2018) found that only 27% of planners warn users about unreliable ACS data, violating AICP ethical standards. In this exercise, you’ll practice the five research-based guidelines for ethical ACS data communication.

7.1 Create Professional Data Tables with Uncertainty

Your Task: Follow the Jurjevich et al. guidelines to create an ethical data presentation.

Code 
# Get comprehensive data for ethical analysis
ethical_demo_data <- get_acs(
  geography = "county",
  variables = c(
    median_income = "B19013_001",   # Median household income
    total_25plus = "B15003_001",    # Total population 25 years and over
    bachelor_plus = "B15003_022",   # Bachelor's degree or higher
    total_pop = "B01003_001"        # Total population
  ),
  state = state_choice,
  year = 2022,
  output = "wide"
) %>%
  mutate(
    # Calculate derived statistics
    pct_college = (bachelor_plusE / total_25plusE) * 100,
    
    # Calculate MOE for percentage using error propagation
    pct_college_moe = pct_college * sqrt((bachelor_plusM/bachelor_plusE)^2 + (total_25plusM/total_25plusE)^2),
    
    # Calculate coefficient of variation for all key variables
    income_cv = (median_incomeM / median_incomeE) * 100,
    education_cv = (pct_college_moe / pct_college) * 100,
    
    # Create reliability categories based on CV
    income_reliability = case_when(
      income_cv < 12 ~ "High",
      income_cv <= 40 ~ "Moderate", 
      TRUE ~ "Low"
    ),
    
    education_reliability = case_when(
      education_cv < 12 ~ "High",
      education_cv <= 40 ~ "Moderate",
      TRUE ~ "Low"
    ),
    
    # Create color coding for reliability
    income_color = case_when(
      income_reliability == "High" ~ "🟢",
      income_reliability == "Moderate" ~ "🟡",
      TRUE ~ "🔴"
    ),
    
    education_color = case_when(
      education_reliability == "High" ~ "🟢",
      education_reliability == "Moderate" ~ "🟡", 
      TRUE ~ "🔴"
    ),
    
    # Clean county names
    county_name = str_remove(NAME, paste0(", ", state_choice))
  )

# Create ethical data table focusing on least reliable estimates
ethical_data_table <- ethical_demo_data %>%
  select(county_name, median_incomeE, median_incomeM, income_cv, income_color,
         pct_college, pct_college_moe, education_cv, education_color) %>%
  arrange(desc(income_cv)) %>%  # Show least reliable first
  slice_head(n = 10)

# Create professional table following guidelines
library(knitr)
library(kableExtra)

ethical_data_table %>%
  select(county_name, median_incomeE, median_incomeM, income_cv, income_color) %>%
  kable(
    col.names = c("County", "Median Income", "Margin of Error", 
                  "CV (%)", "Reliability"),
    caption = "Pennsylvania Counties: Median Household Income with Statistical Uncertainty",
    format.args = list(big.mark = ",")
  ) %>%
  kable_styling(bootstrap_options = c("striped", "hover")) %>%
  footnote(
    general = c("Coefficient of Variation (CV) indicates reliability:",
                "🟢 High reliability (CV < 12%)",
                "🟡 Moderate reliability (CV 12-40%)", 
                "🔴 Low reliability (CV > 40%)",
                "Following Jurjevich et al. (2018) research recommendations",
                "Source: American Community Survey 2018-2022 5-Year Estimates"),
    general_title = "Notes:"
  )
Pennsylvania Counties: Median Household Income with Statistical Uncertainty
County Median Income Margin of Error CV (%) Reliability
Forest County, Pennsylvania 46,188 4,612 9.985278 🟢 |
Sullivan County, Pennsylvania 62,910 5,821 9.252901 🟢 |
Union County, Pennsylvania 64,914 4,753 7.321995 🟢 |
Montour County, Pennsylvania 72,626 5,146 7.085617 🟢 |
Elk County, Pennsylvania 61,672 4,091 6.633480 🟢 |
Greene County, Pennsylvania 66,283 4,247 6.407374 🟢 |
Cameron County, Pennsylvania 46,186 2,605 5.640237 🟢 |
Snyder County, Pennsylvania 65,914 3,666 5.561793 🟢 |
Carbon County, Pennsylvania 64,538 3,424 5.305402 🟢 |
Warren County, Pennsylvania 57,925 3,005 5.187743 🟢 |
Notes:
Coefficient of Variation (CV) indicates reliability:
🟢 High reliability (CV < 12%)
🟡 Moderate reliability (CV 12-40%)
🔴 Low reliability (CV > 40%)
Following Jurjevich et al. (2018) research recommendations
Source: American Community Survey 2018-2022 5-Year Estimates

7.3 Now try Census Tracts

Code 
# Get census tract poverty data for Philadelphia
philly_poverty <- get_acs(
    geography = "tract",
    variables = c(
      poverty_pop = "B17001_001",     
      poverty_below = "B17001_002"    
    ),
    state = "PA",
    county = "101",
    year = 2022,
    output = "wide"
  ) %>%
  filter(poverty_popE > 0) %>%  # Remove tracts with no poverty data
  mutate(
    # Calculate poverty rate and its MOE
    poverty_rate = (poverty_belowE / poverty_popE) * 100,
    
    # MOE for derived percentage using error propagation
    poverty_rate_moe = poverty_rate * sqrt((poverty_belowM/poverty_belowE)^2 + (poverty_popM/poverty_popE)^2),
    
    # Coefficient of variation
    poverty_cv = (poverty_rate_moe / poverty_rate) * 100,
    
    # Reliability assessment
    reliability = case_when(
      poverty_cv < 12 ~ "High",
      poverty_cv <= 40 ~ "Moderate",
      poverty_cv <= 75 ~ "Low",
      TRUE ~ "Very Low"
    ),
    
    # Color coding
    reliability_color = case_when(
      reliability == "High" ~ "🟢",
      reliability == "Moderate" ~ "🟡",
      reliability == "Low" ~ "🟠",
      TRUE ~ "🔴"
    ),
    
    # Population size categories
    pop_category = case_when(
      poverty_popE < 500 ~ "Very Small (<500)",
      poverty_popE < 1000 ~ "Small (500-1000)",
      poverty_popE < 1500 ~ "Medium (1000-1500)",
      TRUE ~ "Large (1500+)"
    )
  )

# Check the data quality crisis at tracts
reliability_summary <- philly_poverty %>%
  count(reliability) %>%
  mutate(
    percentage = round(n / sum(n) * 100, 1),
    total_bg = sum(n)
  )

print("Philadelphia Census Tract Poverty Data Reliability:")
[1] "Philadelphia Census Tract Poverty Data Reliability:"
Code 
reliability_summary %>%
  kable(
    col.names = c("Data Quality", "Number of Tracts", "Percentage", "Total"),
    caption = "The Data Quality Crisis: Philadelphia Census Tract Poverty Estimates"
  ) %>%
  kable_styling()
The Data Quality Crisis: Philadelphia Census Tract Poverty Estimates
Data Quality Number of Tracts Percentage Total
Low 295 75.8 389
Moderate 53 13.6 389
Very Low 41 10.5 389
Code 
# Show the most problematic estimates (following Guideline 3: provide context)
worst_estimates <- philly_poverty %>%
  filter(reliability %in% c("Low", "Very Low")) %>%
  arrange(desc(poverty_cv)) %>%
  slice_head(n = 10)

worst_estimates %>%
  select(GEOID, poverty_rate, poverty_rate_moe, poverty_cv, reliability_color, poverty_popE) %>%
  kable(
    col.names = c("Tract", "Poverty Rate (%)", "MOE", "CV (%)", "Quality", "Pop Size"),
    caption = "Guideline 3: Tracts with Least Reliable Poverty Estimates",
    digits = c(0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0)
  ) %>%
  kable_styling() %>%
  footnote(
    general = c("These estimates should NOT be used for policy decisions",
                "CV > 75% indicates very low reliability",
                "Recommend aggregation or alternative data sources")
  )
Guideline 3: Tracts with Least Reliable Poverty Estimates
Tract Poverty Rate (%) MOE CV (%) Quality Pop Size
42101989100 15.8 45.2 286.1 🔴 | 38|
42101000101 0.7 1.1 157.9 🔴 | 1947|
42101980200 37.9 45.2 119.4 🔴 | 66|
42101023100 3.8 4.5 119.4 🔴 | 1573|
42101025600 1.7 2.0 114.2 🔴 | 2642|
42101014202 1.7 1.8 107.0 🔴 | 2273|
42101000403 6.6 6.7 101.8 🔴 | 1047|
42101026100 4.7 4.4 95.0 🔴 | 2842|
42101036502 4.9 4.7 94.9 🔴 | 4284|
42101032000 21.8 20.6 94.8 🔴 | 7873|
Note:
These estimates should NOT be used for policy decisions
CV > 75% indicates very low reliability
Recommend aggregation or alternative data sources

Key References and Acknowledgments

Jurjevich, J. R., Griffin, A. L., Spielman, S. E., Folch, D. C., Merrick, M., & Nagle, N. N. (2018). Navigating statistical uncertainty: How urban and regional planners understand and work with American community survey (ACS) data for guiding policy. Journal of the American Planning Association, 84(2), 112-126.

Walker, K. (2023). Analyzing US Census Data: Methods, Maps, and Models in R. Available at: https://walker-data.com/census-r/

AI Acknowledgments: This lab was developed with coding assistance from Claude AI. I have run, reviewed, and edited the final version. Any remaining errors are my own.